Constantinople: From the Middle Ages to Today
With the fall of Rome, the Mediterranean and European world changed drastically. This marked the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. One of the defining characteristics of this new era was the decline of cities. In the former Roman provinces, various Germanic tribes took control, establishing a completely different way of life. Their rulers built castles in the countryside, dividing the land among their warriors, while the subdued peasants worked for them. This system became known as feudalism. While cities did not disappear entirely—many survived under the leadership of bishops and the Church—the Western Middle Ages began as a civilization dominated by rural life.
However, such changes did not occur in the East. The Eastern Roman Empire, known today as Byzantium, resisted barbarian invasions and maintained its economy and political existence through its great cities. Constantinople, called the "Queen of Cities," along with Thessaloniki, Antioch, and Alexandria in Egypt, remained vital urban centers. These cities preserved ancient political institutions and served as hubs of trade, education, and craftsmanship. Even as Arab and Slavic invasions posed challenges from the 7th century onward, Byzantine cities endured. In the final centuries of Byzantium, urban populations developed a strong political consciousness, often demanding autonomy and even rebelling against central authority and the ruling elite. Despite reaching a population of over 500,000, Constantinople suffered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and never fully recovered.
From the 11th century onward, cities in medieval Europe regained significance. Commerce flourished, artisans and bankers emerged, and the Church shifted its focus from rural monasteries to grand cathedrals and urban universities. Urban dwellers took pride in their cities, developed political awareness, and demanded rights. A saying of the time claimed, "The air of the city makes a man free." In Italy, city-states like Venice—whose powerful fleet dominated the Mediterranean—and Florence—renowned as a center of art and culture during the Renaissance—rose to prominence.
As cities gained influence, rural aristocrats lost power. In alliance with monarchs, cities freed themselves from feudal lords, laying the groundwork for a new economic system. Many historians see this moment as the birth of modern capitalism. The dominant class of capitalism would later be known as the bourgeoisie—a term derived from the French word for "city-dweller" (bourgeois).
Cities, however, were not exclusive to Europe. The Arab world, China, and even civilizations of the Americas, such as the Aztecs, built massive cities, often far larger than those in Paris, London, or Rome. Yet it was Europeans who eventually conquered and shaped the modern world. From the 15th century onward, military organization, technological advancements, scientific progress, and the Industrial Revolution propelled nations like England and France to global supremacy.
New York: The Rise of the Modern Metropolis
As cities grew larger, living conditions for most residents remained harsh. Overcrowding forced people into tiny dwellings, making them vulnerable to fires and disease. It took centuries before modern sanitation systems and hospitals improved urban life. But once these advancements took hold, cities became even more dominant. Moving from a small village to an urban center, even in developed countries, offered a new way of life filled with opportunities and comforts previously unimaginable. Cities became centers of education, entertainment, economic opportunity, and innovation.
From the 19th and especially the 20th century onward, cities embraced railways, automobiles, electricity, telephones, refrigerators, and countless other inventions that reinforced their significance.
Yet, cities remain dependent on rural areas for food and communication networks. When these links are disrupted, urban populations can suffer immensely—as seen in Athens during World War II, when famine devastated the city. Cities have also become primary targets in warfare. Some, like Stalingrad, were destroyed in battles, while others, like Dresden and Hiroshima, suffered catastrophic bombings. Urban poverty and inequality persist, sometimes leading to violent upheavals, such as the Paris Commune of 1871 and the social unrest in France and the United States during the 1960s.
City life also transforms social structures. In modern metropolises, individuals often live isolated lives, surrounded by strangers from diverse backgrounds. This urban alienation has profound psychological effects on people.
A significant milestone occurred in 2020, though it went largely unnoticed: for the first time, over 50% of the world’s population lived in cities. Globalization, through digital communication, financial networks, and migration, has given rise to a new type of global metropolis.
The upper classes, scientists, and technocrats, with their international education, travel experiences, and cosmopolitan outlooks, often feel more connected to their counterparts in Paris, London, or New York than to their fellow citizens in rural areas or suburbs just 50 kilometers away. Meanwhile, middle- and lower-class populations, facing fewer opportunities and greater challenges, frequently express frustration with a world that seems to be leaving them behind. This urban-rural divide has fueled many political crises, from Brexit and the 2016 U.S. elections to social unrest in France and protests by farmers in Germany and the Netherlands.
Even Greece reflects this urban-rural imbalance, with one-third of its population concentrated in Athens. The economic and political disparity between the capital and the rest of the country is a long-standing issue that experts increasingly highlight as a barrier to national development.
The Future of 21st-Century Cities
What will the cities of the 21st century become? Will they turn into vast prisons, overcrowded and devoid of civic engagement? Will they serve as mere nodes in a global economic network? Can they strike a balance between different social classes and ethnic groups? And how will they cope with new challenges, such as pandemics and ecological crises?
The answers to these questions will likely define our era and shape the way we live in the future.
