Greek-Turkish relations have been marked by alternating periods of mutual hostility and reconciliation since Greece gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, following the Greek Revolution of 1821.

Since then, the two countries have faced each other in four major wars, the Greek-Turkish War of 1897, the First Balkan War of 1912-1913, World War I (1914-1918) and finally the Greco-Turkish War of 1919 - 1922. The end of the latter was followed by the population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Both countries joined NATO in 1952. Relatively good relations deteriorated again in the 1950s, due to the pogrom against the Greeks of Istanbul in 1955, the expulsion of Greeks from Istanbul in 1960, the Cyprus issue, the Turkish invasion in Cyprus in 1974, and subsequent military confrontations over the dispute over ownership of certain Aegean islands. A period of relative normalization began after 1999 with the so-called "earthquake diplomacy" that changed the negative situation of the previous years. In recent years (2010), tensions have increased again.

Diplomatic representations

Greece has embassies in Ankara and consulates general in Constantinople(Turkish: Instanbul), Smyrne(Turkish: Izmir) and Andrianoupoli(Turkish: Edirne).

Turkey has embassies in Athens and consulates general in Thessaloniki, Komotini and Rhodes.

Byzantine and Ottoman Empire

In 1300, conflicts began between the Byzantines and the Ottomans. The two empires were rivals in many battles until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

After conquering the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Turks conquered the Despotate of Mystras in 1460 and from 1500 more and more territories and islands came under Ottoman control. Rhodes was conquered in 1522, Cyprus in 1571, while Venetian rule of Crete did not fall until 1669. The Ionian Islands remained under Ottoman rule only for a very short time and remained mainly under the rule of the Republic of Venice.

The Ottoman era until 1820

During the Venetian-Turkish Wars and the Russo-Turkish War (1768-74), the enslaved Greeks supported and helped the enemies of the Ottomans. There were also some Greek revolts, especially by Dionysius the Philosopher. Moreover, the fleet of Lambros Katsonis, began to harass the Ottoman fleet in the Aegean Sea.

*Ethnic map of Asia Minor depicting the Ottoman Greeks (blue) in 1910*

From 1821 to 1913

In March 1821, the Greek Revolution began aiming for independence from the Ottoman Empire. Greece officially declared its independence in January 1822, and after the Battle of Navarino in 1827, the establishment of a Greek state recognized the London Protocol in 1828.

More than a million Greeks lived in the territories of present-day Turkey at that time, mainly on the coasts of Asia Minor. The Greek politicians of the 19th century were determined to include all these territories in a significantly enlarged Greek state, which would have Byzantine Empire as its model and Constantinople as its capital. This policy was called the "Great Idea". Constantinople was the capital of the eastern part of the Roman Empire from 330 AD until its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The Neo-Turks, who took power in Ottoman Empire in 1908, aggravated the already difficult situation of the Christian minorities. Crete then again became a focus of Greek and Turkish aspirations. The First Balkan War of 1912-1913 was a direct result of the growing tensions, and with its end, Greece annexed Crete, the islands of the northeastern Aegean, the rest of Thessaly and Epirus, and most of Macedonia from the Ottomans.

*The first Ottoman ambassador to the Greek Kingdom, the Phanariote Konstantinos Mousouros, at a ball in the royal palace in Athens*

The First World War and after (1914-1927)

Greece entered World War I in 1917, hoping to annex Constantinople(Turkish: Istanbul) and Smyrne(Turkish: Izmir) from the Ottomans, with support from Britain and France. The ongoing Genocide of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire was also a major factor in this decision. In 1920, with the Treaty of Sevres Eastern Thrace and the Smyrne area were ceded to Greece. This treaty was signed by the Ottoman government but never came into force.

Greece occupied Smyrne on May 15, 1919, while Mustafa Kemal (later Ataturk) landed in Samsun on May 19, 1919, an act considered the beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. He joined the protesting voices in Anatolia and launched a nationalist movement to repel the troops of the countries that occupied Turkey (like Italy, France and Britain) and create the new borders of a sovereign Turkish nation. After forming its own government in Ankara, Kemal's government did not recognize the failed Treaty of Sevres and fought to abrogate it. Greek developments in Anatolia were very rapid and eventually, the Greek army was forced to retreat.

The Turkish army entered Smyrna on September 9, 1922. The Greek army and administration had already left the sea. The war ended with the destruction of Smyrna and mass murders of the Greek population The Treaty of Lausanne replaced the previous treaties and defined the borders that still apply to Turkey today.

The Treaty of Lausanne provided for the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey, which had already begun before the final signing of the treaty in July 1923. About one and a half million Greeks had to leave Turkey for Greece and about half a million Turks had to emigrate from Greece to Turkey (the population exchange was based on religious motives, so it was an exchange between Christians and Muslims).

These events proved disastrous for Greece. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed, thousands of families were forced to leave their ancestral homes and the continuous Greek presence of 3,000 years in Minor Asia almost ended.

*Overcrowded boats with people fleeing the Great fire of Smyrna. The photo was taken from the launch boat of a US warship.*

The September events, the crisis in Cyprus, the Turkish invasion of the island and the collapse of the military junta (1955-1975)

A serious issue in the conflicts between Greece and Turkey from the 1950s onwards was Cyprus, which was a British colony until 1960 and Greek Cypriots accounted for 82% of the island's population. Most Greek Cypriots wanted unification with Greece and nationalist riots ensued. The Greek government was forced to abandon the goal of unification with Cyprus because of its economic and diplomatic dependence on Britain.

In the 1950s the issue of Cyprus flared up again when the Greek Cypriots at Archbishop Makarios demanded union with Greece and the EOKA paramilitary actions against the British began. Finally, the Greek Prime Minister Alexandros Papagos carried the issue of Cyprus to the United Nations.

The Turks became very concerned about the idea of Cyprus being ceded to Greece. This led to the pogrom on the Greek community in Constantinople in 1955.

In 1960 a compromise solution to the Cyprus question was agreed: Britain would grant independence to Cyprus, which would be given its own constitution. Greek and Turkish troops would be stationed on the island to protect their respective communities. Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was the main architect of this project, which led to an immediate improvement in relations with Turkey.

In the period 1963 - 1964, inter-communal conflicts occurred with the result that Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots were expelled from their homes and many were killed on both sides.

On December 30, 1964, Makarios proposed a constitutional amendment that would include 13 articles. Turkey, however, reiterated its opposition to it and threatened war if Cyprus tried to achieve unification with Greece. In August, Turkish planes bombed Greek troops near a Turkish village and war seemed imminent.

The Cyprus conflict was reactivated in April 1967 with the military coup in Greece. Within the framework of the diplomacy of the military regime, there were repeated crises with Turkey.

In 1971, Turkish law nationalized religious schools and terminated the Halki Theological School.

On July 15, 1974, a group of Greek Cypriots formed the EOKA B, which wanted union with Greece and was supported by the Greek military junta in Athens, which organized a coup against the President of the Republic of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios. Nikos Sampson was appointed president. On July 20, Turkey invaded Cyprus, without any resistance from the British forces stationed on the island, and occupied 37% of the northern part, expelling the Greek population there. Once again, the war between Greece and Turkey seemed imminent but was averted when the coup collapsed a few days later and Makarios returned to power.

The issue of the islands in the Aegean

From the 1970s onwards, further problems arose between the two countries when it came to sovereign rights in the Aegean. Since the end of World War II, Turkish officials have insisted that this led to issues over the demarcation of territorial waters, airspace and more related to zones of control.

The conflict was motivated both by an assessment of military-tactical advantages and by questions of economic exploitation of the Aegean.

The conflict led to a constant tactic of military provocations. Turkish aircraft regularly fly in Greek control zones, while Greek aircraft constantly restrict them. Aircraft from both countries often engage in virtual dogfights. These actions often result in casualties and losses on both Greek and Turkish Air Forces.

Incident on the Evros River

In 1986, Turkish and Greek soldiers were killed in an incident on the Evros River due to an exchange of fire. Turkish and Greek soldiers had exchanged gunfire in the past when the Greeks tried to stop Iranian immigrants from entering illegally from Turkey, but this was the first time there were casualties. At the time, Greek soldiers were on alert along the border with Turkey after reports emerged that Turkey was planning to help thousands of migrants enter Greece illegally.

Illegal immigration

Turkey is a transit point for illegal immigrants trying to reach Europe. Incidents of illegal immigration are commonplace at the borders of the two countries. Turkey has been accused of failing to secure its border with Greece. In 2001, some 800 illegal immigrants were rescued by the Greek Coast Guard after a fire broke out on the Turkish-flagged ship Brelner, believed to be en route to Italy from a Turkish port in Smyrna(Izmir). Turkish authorities are tolerant of smugglers who smuggle illegal immigrants into Greece. One notable incident is that of the boat sunk by the Latvian crew of a Frontex helicopter patrolling near the island of Farmakonisi on September 14, 2009. "It is clear that, at best, the Turkish Coast Guard does not prevent ships from sailing from its shores". At worst, it escorts them into Greek territorial waters. Human trafficking into Greece across the Aegean is a documented and frequent phenomenon, while Frontex said Turkish officials do not try to stop suspicious ships, ensuring a steady flow of migrants to reach Lesvos and other Aegean islands.

In July 2016, after the failed Turkish coup attempt, Greek authorities on some Aegean islands called for urgent measures to stop the growing flow of illegal immigrants from Turkey as the number of illegal immigrants traveling throughout the Aegean has increased.

Turkey - Libyan Government Pact National agreement

On 27 November 2019, a memorandum on cooperation between the Turkish Government and the Provisional Government of the Libyan National Accord was signed in Constantinople(Istanbul), establishing maritime jurisdiction and military cooperation and security between the two sides. Subsequently, maps were published showing the agreed maritime zones with which Greece's maritime rights were violated. From the first moment, the Greek side stressed that the content of this memorandum / Turkey-Libya agreement was grossly contrary to international maritime law and did not produce any legal effects.

On December 6, 2019, the Greek Foreign Ministry called the Libyan ambassador again and informed him that he had been declared undesirable in the country (persona non grata) and given 72 hours to leave the country. The decision to expel the Libyan ambassador provoked strong reactions in both Turkey and Libya. The decision to expel the Libyan ambassador was supported by the American ambassador to Greece, Jeffrey Payat.

Greece was supported by Italy, Spain, Cyprus, Russia, Egypt, Germany and Israel. The French President, Emmanuel Macron, publicly expressed his support for Greece in the press conference he gave after the NATO summit and criticized the Turkish-Libyan pact.

The Commission, President Ursula von der Leyen, called Turkey's actions in the Aegean "unacceptable", while Commission Vice President and the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs, Josep Borrell, expressed EU solidarity and support in Greece and Cyprus, noting that the Turkey-Libya memorandum on cooperation raised "serious concerns".

The Speaker of the Libyan House of Representatives sent a letter to the UN Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, on December 9, 2019, calling the agreement invalid while questioning the legitimacy of the Provisional Government of Libya.